Perspectivas futuras na abordagem profilática e terapêutica da trombose venosa: substâncias antitrombóticas com menor risco hemorrágico?
Future prospects for prophylactic and therapeutic management of venous thrombosis: antithrombotic substances with lower risk of hemorrhage?
Francisco Humberto de Abreu Maffei
Os anticoagulantes são medicamentos essenciais no tratamento e na profilaxia do tromboembolismo venoso desde a década de 40 do século passado, com a utilização da heparina e das anti-vitaminas K. Porém, mesmo com a introdução das heparinas de baixo peso molecular, do fondaparinux e, mais recentemente, dos anticoagulantes orais diretos, existe ainda um risco não desprezível de hemorragias significativas e mesmo letais
Os conhecimentos adquiridos nas últimas décadas, principalmente a partir de estudos experimentais, sugerem que o sistema imunológico e as células inflamatórias têm papel na ativação inicial e localizada da coagulação nas veias que desencadeia a trombose, principalmente nas situações em que existe diminuição ou bloqueio do fluxo sanguíneo
Estudos em modelos experimentais de trombose provocada pela diminuição ou parada de fluxo sanguíneo induzidas por estenose ou ligadura em veia cava de roedores, sugerem que, em decorrência da isquemia e da ativação das células endoteliais, haveria liberação de moléculas que atraem leucócitos e plaquetas e também exposição de moléculas de adesão dessas células ao endotélio. Foi demonstrado também que os leucócitos aderidos são principalmente monócitos que liberam fator tecidual (FT) e neutrófilos que liberam enzimas e formam as armadilhas extracelulares de neutrófilos (neutrophil extracellular traps, NETs), que ativam fatores de coagulação e inativam anticoagulantes naturais
Surge então a pergunta: seria possível utilizar, na terapia da trombose venosa (TV), substâncias com ação anti-inflamatória que inibissem esses mecanismos e com menor ou nenhuma ação anticoagulante sistêmica?
Baseados nos conhecimentos acima referidos, foram utilizadas diferentes substâncias com a finalidade de inibir moléculas de atração ou adesão de células inflamatórias, como as P e as E-selectinas, ou inibir enzimas liberadas por essas células, que ativam localmente o sistema de coagulação ou agem em algum ponto dessa sequência de eventos iniciais no desenvolvimento de trombos, visando impedir sua formação ou progressão, sem interferir na coagulação sistêmica.
Inúmeros trabalhos do grupo do Dr. Wakefield, da Universidade de Michigan, mostraram a ação antitrombótica de inibidores da P-selectina, molécula de adesão de plaquetas e leucócitos, tanto em modelo de trombose induzida por ligadura de veia cava de ratos
Culmer et al.
Em um trabalho nessa linha testando substâncias com ação anti-inflamatória na prevenção da TV, realizado no Laboratório de Purificação de Proteínas do Departamento de Bioquímica da UNIFESP (Profa. Dra. Maria Luiza Vilela Oliva), utilizamos o inibidor recombinante rBbCI
Em ensaios clínicos, foi verificado que as estatinas, principalmente a rosuvastatina, exercem um certo efeito protetor contra o desenvolvimento do tromboembolismo venoso
Os resultados verificados com essas várias substâncias com ação anti-inflamatória em diferentes modelos animais de TV e, no caso das estatinas, em estudos clínicos, são animadores e sugerem a possibilidade de estarmos no caminho de uma nova classe de medicamentos que, com pouco ou nenhum efeito hemorrágico, possam ser utilizados com mais segurança na profilaxia e no tratamento das tromboses venosas. Esses resultados sugerem também que o efeito profilático de anticoagulantes usados em doses menores do que as de tratamento da TV possa ser, pelo menos em parte, devido a uma ação anti-inflamatória local.
Abstract
Anticoagulants are medications that have been essential for treatment and prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism since the 1940s, initially with heparins and vitamin K antagonists. However, even with the introduction of low molecular weight heparins, fondaparinux, and, more recently, direct oral anticoagulants, there is still a non-negligible risk of significant and even lethal hemorrhages. 1-4
Knowledge that has been accumulated over recent decades, primarily from experimental studies, suggests that the immune system and inflammatory cells play a role in initial and localized activation of coagulation in the veins, triggering thrombosis, primarily in situations in which blood flow is reduced or blocked. 5-8 This state of stasis can occur in human beings in cases of venous compression and restriction to bed because of clinical diseases or surgery and also during anesthesia, immobilization due to trauma, paralysis, and long journeys. 9-11
Studies in experimental models of thrombosis, provoked by reducing or halting blood flow by induced stenosis or ligature in the vena cava of rodents suggest that, in response to ischemia and activation of endothelial cells, molecules are released that attract leukocytes and platelets and adhesion molecules for these cells are also exposed in the endothelium. It has also been demonstrated that the leukocytes that adhere are primarily monocytes that release tissue factor (TF) and neutrophils that release enzymes and form neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), which activate coagulation factors and deactivate natural anticoagulants. 12-14 Von Brühn et al. 15 have shown in a highly illustrative manner, using scanning electron microscopy, that induction of stenosis in the vena cava of mice does not provoke morphological injury to the endothelium. However, they observed that after 1 hour leukocytes began to roll along the endothelium and after 6 hours the surface of the endothelium was covered by a layer of these cells. Using intravital microscopy, they showed that these leukocytes were primarily monocytes and neutrophils. They also showed presence of NETs in thrombi and their role in formation and progression of the thrombus by activation of the intrinsic coagulation system. To achieve this, they used transgenic animals with neutropenia or with factor XII deficiency and animals in which NETs were lysed by DNase, in which formation of thrombus would not occur. The following question therefore arises: could it be possible to use substances with anti-inflammatory activity that inhibits these mechanisms and with weaker or nonexistent systemic anticoagulant effects to treat venous thrombosis (VT)?
Based on the knowledge described above, a number of different substances have been used with the objective of inhibiting molecules responsible for attraction or adhesion of inflammatory cells, such as P-selectins and E-selectins, or of inhibiting enzymes released by these cells, which locally activate the coagulation system or act at some point in this initial sequence of events involved in thrombi development, in the hope of impeding their formation or progression, without interfering with systemic coagulation.
Many different studies published by Dr. Wakefield’s University of Michigan team have demonstrated the antithrombotic activity of P-selectin inhibitors (an adhesion molecule for platelets and leukocytes), both in a model of thrombosis induced by ligature of the vena cava in rats 16,17 and in monkeys, inducing thrombosis in the vena cava or iliac veins using balloon occlusion. 18-21
Culmer et al., 22 part of the same team, using an E-selectin inhibitor for prevention and treatment of thrombosis in a model of vena cava stasis in mice, also demonstrated an inhibitory effect on formation and extension of thrombi in a similar manner to enoxaparin, in relation to a control group, without changing the bleeding time, as occurs with enoxaparin.
In a study along the same lines, we tested substances with anti-inflammatory activity for prevention of VT in the Protein Purification Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, UNIFESP (Prof. Dr. Maria Luiza Vilela Oliva), using the recombinant inhibitor rBbCI, 23 the original protein of which has demonstrated inhibitory actions on elastase, cathepsin-G, 24 proinflammatory enzymes that are also inhibited by heparin. 25 The rBbCI inhibitor also reduced levels of interleukin-8, a cytokine that primarily stimulates migration of neutrophils to the focus of inflammation. 24 In a model of vena cava ligature in rats, rBbCI had an inhibitory effect on development of the thrombus similar to that of heparin and, like heparin, the action was dose-dependent. 26 However, rBbCI did not change activated partial thromboplastin time or bleeding time in the animals’ tails, which were identical to times in control animals. The anti-inflammatory activity of heparin, responsible for inhibition of adhesion of leukocytes to the activated endothelium, in conjunction with its anticoagulant activity, had been proposed previously and may, in this model, participate in the antithrombotic effect of heparin. 27
In clinical trials, it has been observed that statins, and particularly rosuvastatin, exert a certain protective effect against development of venous thromboembolism. 28 It has been suggested that one of the mechanisms of this effect is the anti-inflammatory role played by these medications. However, these results are considered preliminary and additional evidence is needed to justify using these drugs for this purpose. 29-31
The results observed with these various different substances with anti-inflammatory activity in the different animal models of VT and, in the case of statins, in clinical studies, are encouraging and suggest the possibility that we are on course towards a new class of medications which, with little or no hemorrhagic effect, can be used for prophylaxis and treatment of venous thromboses with greater safety. These results also suggest that the prophylactic effect of anticoagulants used at doses lower than those for treatment of VT may be, at least in part, because of a local anti-inflammatory effect.
References
Galanaud JP, Laroche JP, Righini M. The history and historical treatments of deep vein thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost. 2013;11(3):402-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jth.12127. PMid:23297815.
Kearon C, Akl EA, Ornelas J, et al. Antithrombotic Therapy for VTE Disease: CHEST guideline and expert panel report. Chest. 2016;149(2):315-52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2015.11.026. PMid:26867832.
Witt DM, Nieuwlaat R, Clark NP, et al. American Society of Hematology 2018 guidelines for management of venous thromboembolism: optimal management of anticoagulation therapy. Blood Adv. 2018;27(22):3257-91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/bloodadvances.2018024893. PMid:30482765.
Brandão GMS, Cândido RCF, Rollo HA, Sobreira ML, Junqueira DR. Direct oral anticoagulants for treatment of deep vein thrombosis: overview of systematic reviews. J Vasc Bras. 2018;17(4):310-7. PMid:30787949.
Stewart GJ, Ritchie WG, Lynch PR. Venous endothelial damage produced by massive sticking and emigration of leukocytes. Am J Pathol. 1974;74(3):507-3. PMid:4814899.
Wakefield TW, Strieter RM, Prince MR, Downing LJ, Greenfield LJ. Pathogenesis of venous thrombosis: a new insight. Cardiovasc Surg. 1997;5(1):6-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0967-2109(96)00083-X. PMid:9158116.
Wakefield TW, Myers DD, Henke PK. Mechanisms of venous thrombosis and resolution. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28(3):387-91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.108.162289. PMid:18296594.
Saghazadeh A, Hafizi S, Rezaei N. Inflammation in venous thromboembolism: Cause or consequence? Int Immunopharmacol. 2015;28(1):655-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2015.07.044. PMid:26253657.
Sevitt S. The structure and growth of valve-pocket R4thrombi in femoral veins. J Clin Pathol. 1974;27(7):517-28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jcp.27.7.517. PMid:4138834.
Bovill EG, van der Vliet A. Venous valvular stasis-associated hypoxia and thrombosis: what is the link? Annu Rev Physiol. 2011;73(1):527-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physiol-012110-142305. PMid:21034220.
Heit JA, Spencer FA, White RH. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2016;41(1):3-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11239-015-1311-6. PMid:26780736.
Myers D Jr, Farris D, Hawley A, et al. Selectins influence thrombosis in a mouse model of experimental deep venous thrombosis. J Surg Res. 2002;108(2):212-21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jsre.2002.6552. PMid:12505044.
Manly DA, Boles J, Mackman N. Role of tissue factor in venous thrombosis. Annu Rev Physiol. 2011;73(1):515-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physiol-042210-121137. PMid:20690821.
Brill A, Fuchs TA, Savchenko AS, et al. Neutrophil extracellular traps promote deep vein thrombosis in mice. J Thromb Haemost. 2012;10(1):136-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04544.x. PMid:22044575.
von Brühl ML, Sta I, Lorenz M, et al. Monocytes, neutrophils, and platelets cooperate to initiate and propagate venous thrombosis in mice in vivo. J Exp Med. 2012;209(4):819-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.20112322. PMid:22451716.
Wakefield TW, Strieter RM, Downing LJ, et al. P-selectin and TNF inhibition reduce venous thrombosis inflammation. J Surg Res. 1996;64(1):26-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jsre.1996.0301. PMid:8806469.
Myers DD Jr, Henke PK, Wrobleski SK, et al. P-selectin inhibition enhances thrombus resolution and decreases vein wall fibrosis in a rat model. J Vasc Surg. 2002;36(5):928-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mva.2002.128636. PMid:12422103.
Downing LJ, Wakefield TW, Strieter RM, et al. Anti-P-selectin antibody decreases inflammation and thrombus formation in venous thrombosis. J Vasc Surg. 1997;25(5):816-27, discussion 828. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0741-5214(97)70211-8. PMid:9152309.
Wakefield TW, Strieter RM, Schaub R, et al. Venous thrombosis prophylaxis by inflammatory inhibition without anticoagulation. J Vasc Surg. 2000;31(2):309-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0741-5214(00)90162-9. PMid:10664500.
Ramacciotti E, Myers DD Jr, Wrobleski SK, et al. P-selectin/ PSGL-1 inhibitors versus enoxaparin in the resolution of venous thrombosis: a meta-analysis. Thromb Res. 2010;125(4):e138-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2009.10.022. PMid:19962723.
Diaz DA, Wrobleski SK, Alvarado CM, et al. P-Selectin Inhibition therapeutically promotes thrombus resolution and prevents vein wall fibrosis better than enoxaparin and an inhibitor to von willebrand factor. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2015;35(4):829-37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.114.304457. PMid:25657307.
Culmer DL, Dunbar ML, Hawley AE, et al. E-selectin inhibition with GMI-1271 decreases venous thrombosis without profoundly affecting tail vein bleeding in a mouse model. Thromb Haemost. 2017;117(6):1171-81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1160/TH16-04-0323. PMid:28300869.
Araújo AP, Hansen D, Vieira DF, et al. Kunitz-type Bauhinia bauhinioides inhibitors devoid of disulfide bridges: isolation of the cDNAs, heterologous expression and structural studies. Biol Chem. 2005;386(6):561-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/BC.2005.066. PMid:16006243.
Oliveira C, Navarro-Xavier RA, Anjos-Vallota EA, et al. Effect of plant neutrophil elastase inhibitor on leucocyte migration, adhesion and cytokine release in inflammatory conditions. Br J Pharmacol. 2010;161(4):899-910. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00924.x. PMid:20860667.
Mulloy B, Hogwood J, Gray E, Lever R, Page CP. Pharmacology of Heparin and Related Drugs. Pharmacol Rev. 2016;68(1):76-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.011247. PMid:26672027.
Oliva MLV, Oliveira C, Valois MV, et al. Effect of a recombinant plant elastase inhibitor with antiinflammatory action rBbCI (Bauhinia bauhinioides Cruzain/Cruzipain Inhibitor) on a Rat Model of Venous Thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost. 2015;(Suppl 2):773.
Lever R, Hoult JR, Page CP. The effects of heparin and related molecules upon the adhesion of human polymorphonuclear leucocytes to vascular endothelium in vitro. Br J Pharmacol. 2000;129(3):533-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bjp.0703099. PMid:10711352.
Glynn RJ, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, et al. A randomized trial of rosuvastatin in the prevention of venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(18):1851-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0900241. PMid:19329822.
Pai M, Evans NS, Shah SJ, Green D, Cook D, Crowther MA. Statins in the prevention of venous thromboembolism: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Thromb Res. 2011;128(5):422-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2011.05.012. PMid:21641019.
Rodriguez AL, Wojcik BM, Wrobleski SK, Myers DD Jr, Wakefield TW, Diaz JA. Statins, inflammation and deep vein thrombosis: a systematic review. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2012;33(4):371-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11239-012-0687-9. PMid:22278047.
Lijfering WM, Biedermann JS, Kruip MJ, Leebeek FW, Rosendaal FR, Cannegieter SC. Can we prevent venous thrombosis with statins: an epidemiologic review into mechanism and clinical utility. Expert Rev Hematol. 2016;9(11):1023-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17474086.2016.1245137. PMid:27759438.